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Thursday, November 10, 2011
Saturday, December 19, 2009
Improve Eyesight and Optimal Eye Health Naturally
Naturally improve eyesight and throw away your glasses. Vision training eye exercises and key nutrients have helped thousands of people improve vision naturally. Rebuild Your Vision.
Wouldn't you like to improve eyesight and see without your glasses or contact lenses without going through eye surgery?
Eye exercises improved my eyesight. I have lowered my eye-glass prescription and my eyesight have never gotten worse.
When I was in grade 6, my eyes began to be slightly blurry. After checking up with my optometrist, I found that I was nearsighted and he prescribed me a pair of glasses. From then on, I've gotten used to wearing glasses everyday, and have always increased my prescription.
I didn't really like paying for new expensive lenses every single year so I asked my optometrist if there is any way to improve eyesight, or at least stop the progression of my deteriorating vision.
He said no, "there is no way to improve eyesight". He had the title "Doctor" before his name. So, I believed him.
But later I found that it was a just a BIG LIE to sell me new glasses and lenses.
I've found this program and tried it out RISK FREE and
Eye exercises not only cures nearsightedness, but also improves the following eye problems:
During those days, oh how I desperately wanted to improve eyesight. Well, I am here to help those who was as miserable as I am.
Without any further due, let me introduce you to my website contents so that I can guide you towards the BIG DAY when you can finally grab your glasses or contact lenses with index finger and thumb, and slowly remove them from your head, permanently.
Go to Rebuild Your Vision.
::Improve Eyesight Naturally::
Wouldn't you like to improve eyesight and see without your glasses or contact lenses without going through eye surgery?
Eye exercises improved my eyesight. I have lowered my eye-glass prescription and my eyesight have never gotten worse.
"After I've tried out this AMAZING program, I have improved my eyesight and now I can see without glasses."
When I was in grade 6, my eyes began to be slightly blurry. After checking up with my optometrist, I found that I was nearsighted and he prescribed me a pair of glasses. From then on, I've gotten used to wearing glasses everyday, and have always increased my prescription.
I didn't really like paying for new expensive lenses every single year so I asked my optometrist if there is any way to improve eyesight, or at least stop the progression of my deteriorating vision.
He said no, "there is no way to improve eyesight". He had the title "Doctor" before his name. So, I believed him.
But later I found that it was a just a BIG LIE to sell me new glasses and lenses.
I've found this program and tried it out RISK FREE and
"after about one month, my prescription was significantly lowered and I had to get new glasses to accommodate for my better vision."
Eye exercises not only cures nearsightedness, but also improves the following eye problems:
- Nearsightedness (Myopia)
- Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
- Astigmatism
- Aging vision (Presbyopia)
- Got hit by a soccer ball and the nose piece stabbed into my eye
- Not being able to see in the swimming pool
- Wasting time trying to find my glasses
- Losing money in order to replace broken frame
- I can go on and on...
During those days, oh how I desperately wanted to improve eyesight. Well, I am here to help those who was as miserable as I am.
Without any further due, let me introduce you to my website contents so that I can guide you towards the BIG DAY when you can finally grab your glasses or contact lenses with index finger and thumb, and slowly remove them from your head, permanently.
Go to Rebuild Your Vision.
Wednesday, December 16, 2009
Boreal Ecology Article Review: "Lowland boreal forests characterization in Algonquin Provincial Park relative to beaver (Castor Canadensis) foraging and edaphic factors"
This is a review for the article: "Lowland boreal forests characterization in Algonquin Provincial Park relative to beaver (Castor Canadensis) foraging and edaphic factors".
Noble, T. Donkor is associated with the department of Renewable Resources in University of Alberta, and is currently (year 2009) a professor in the Biology Department of Canadian University College.
This paper covers a research done in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada, that studied the combined effects of herbivory by beavers and edaphic conditions on woody plant community structure of lowland boreal forests that surrounds beaver ponds. 16 beaver ponds were studied (one being control with beaver absence) and analyzed for soil moisture and nutrient content relative to its distance from the pond, the number of certain saplings also relative to the distance, and the different species that was present also distance related. The results showed that herbivory decreased with increased distance from the pond, soil moisture decreased with increased distance, intermediate distance showed highest level of richness in woody plant species, mesic species decreased with distance while xeric species increased with distance, and nutrient content (ie. phosphate, magnesium and organic content) did not vary consistently with distance.
The major strength of this paper is that it is put in an unsophisticated manner– though the experiment requires complicated procedures it is interpreted into a simple and accurate data, which is straightforward and consistent. The weaknesses of this paper are its generalizations and assumptions – for example, the precise number of beavers in different ponds should have been recorded in the paper for detailed comparison along with the average measurements. Also, assuming that beaver’s preferred woody species should be more abundant with increased distance from the ponds (pg 6) should not have been made since the species live in different soil-moisture levels, which vary with distance – number of species that cannot tolerate drier soils will decrease with increased distance. Overall, the experiment done in this paper gives an excellent general view of the effects of the factors that were tested and increased my understanding of the boreal forests in relation to ponds.
Noble, T. Donkor is associated with the department of Renewable Resources in University of Alberta, and is currently (year 2009) a professor in the Biology Department of Canadian University College.
This paper covers a research done in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada, that studied the combined effects of herbivory by beavers and edaphic conditions on woody plant community structure of lowland boreal forests that surrounds beaver ponds. 16 beaver ponds were studied (one being control with beaver absence) and analyzed for soil moisture and nutrient content relative to its distance from the pond, the number of certain saplings also relative to the distance, and the different species that was present also distance related. The results showed that herbivory decreased with increased distance from the pond, soil moisture decreased with increased distance, intermediate distance showed highest level of richness in woody plant species, mesic species decreased with distance while xeric species increased with distance, and nutrient content (ie. phosphate, magnesium and organic content) did not vary consistently with distance.
The major strength of this paper is that it is put in an unsophisticated manner– though the experiment requires complicated procedures it is interpreted into a simple and accurate data, which is straightforward and consistent. The weaknesses of this paper are its generalizations and assumptions – for example, the precise number of beavers in different ponds should have been recorded in the paper for detailed comparison along with the average measurements. Also, assuming that beaver’s preferred woody species should be more abundant with increased distance from the ponds (pg 6) should not have been made since the species live in different soil-moisture levels, which vary with distance – number of species that cannot tolerate drier soils will decrease with increased distance. Overall, the experiment done in this paper gives an excellent general view of the effects of the factors that were tested and increased my understanding of the boreal forests in relation to ponds.
Boreal Ecology Article Review: "Testing hypotheses of trophic level interactions: a boreal forest ecosystem"
This is a review for the article: "Testing hypotheses of trophic level interactions: a boreal forest ecosystem".
A. R. E. Sinclair is associated with the Centre for Biodiversity Research in University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
This paper describes an experiment done in boreal forest ecosystem at Kluane, Yukon, for a period of approximately 10 years, to determine whether the trophic level interaction follows the bottom-up hypothesis or the top-down hypothesis. Two types of experiments were done to test the hypotheses – addition and removal experiments – where they tested the direct and indirect effects of adding certain factors (fertilizer, hare food) and effects of removing certain factors (predator, hare, vegetation), and effects of adding and removing simultaneously to test the double effects. The results indicated that top-down hypothesis had a stronger direct effect on the trophic level interaction where predators of higher trophic level controlled the quantity of their prey.
The major strength of this paper is its thorough experimentation, where they analyzed many different crucial aspects of direct and indirect effects, as well as the double effects of addition and removal of factors – which requires a high level of knowledge and a broad range of view, which they used to form logical conclusions. The weakness of this paper is in the procedures – if there was any level of wind, it may have moved the fertilizers during the air-distribution if they were not extremely careful; another weakness is that the length of this experiment was not long enough to observe the full extent of the indirect effects. Regardless, the experiment has taken a step from looking at the hypotheses at a theory level to the actual real-life view.
This paper fits well with the course context since it analyzes the interaction between trophic levels in the boreal forest specifically (since the top-down hypotheses may not apply to other episodes). This reading helped understand the direct and indirect significance of predator-prey interactions in the boreal forest and both bottom-up and top-down hypotheses, and what must happen in order to make the hypothesis true.
Source Cited:
A. R. E. Sinclair is associated with the Centre for Biodiversity Research in University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
This paper describes an experiment done in boreal forest ecosystem at Kluane, Yukon, for a period of approximately 10 years, to determine whether the trophic level interaction follows the bottom-up hypothesis or the top-down hypothesis. Two types of experiments were done to test the hypotheses – addition and removal experiments – where they tested the direct and indirect effects of adding certain factors (fertilizer, hare food) and effects of removing certain factors (predator, hare, vegetation), and effects of adding and removing simultaneously to test the double effects. The results indicated that top-down hypothesis had a stronger direct effect on the trophic level interaction where predators of higher trophic level controlled the quantity of their prey.
The major strength of this paper is its thorough experimentation, where they analyzed many different crucial aspects of direct and indirect effects, as well as the double effects of addition and removal of factors – which requires a high level of knowledge and a broad range of view, which they used to form logical conclusions. The weakness of this paper is in the procedures – if there was any level of wind, it may have moved the fertilizers during the air-distribution if they were not extremely careful; another weakness is that the length of this experiment was not long enough to observe the full extent of the indirect effects. Regardless, the experiment has taken a step from looking at the hypotheses at a theory level to the actual real-life view.
This paper fits well with the course context since it analyzes the interaction between trophic levels in the boreal forest specifically (since the top-down hypotheses may not apply to other episodes). This reading helped understand the direct and indirect significance of predator-prey interactions in the boreal forest and both bottom-up and top-down hypotheses, and what must happen in order to make the hypothesis true.
Source Cited:
“Testing hypotheses of trophic level interactions: a boreal forest ecosystem,” A. R. E. Sinclair, et al, 89:313-328, 2000.
Monday, November 23, 2009
Truths About Hand Sanitizers
Many hand sanitizers sold on market today claim to kill 99.9% of the bacteria.
Is this claim true?
Analysis was done on an experiment on a sanitizer that proved to have killed 99.9% of the bacteria. The sanitizer was tested on immobile objects (such as a table, chair, book), and not on human hands.
Although it may be true that it disinfects 99.9% of the bacteria on tables, its effectiveness may not be the same on human hands. Since our hands are warm and somewhat moist, it provides a better growth environment for bacteria. Thus, it may be more difficult to kill bacteria that grows on hands, thus decreasing the 99.9% claim.
In addition, even if hand sanitizers kill most bacteria, due to the nice living environment (compared with table for example), bacteria will quickly (faster than on tables) re-multiply its numbers.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
Today, the flu is going around and is infecting many people. It is important to keep your hands clean, and hand sanitizers may be very helpful in preventing infections and spreading it. HOWEVER, hand sanitizers should not be replaced with soap and water; soap-water combination will clean your hands (kills germs while removing oils, dirt, etc) and rinse it down the drain, whereas most of the sanitizer will stay on your hand (along with the dead germs, dirt, etc). Plus, it is said that bacteria may become immune to hand sanitizers if it is the only cleaning method used (not using soap and water, or other alternatives). Thus. hand sanitizers should only be used as a quick alternative when soap and water is not around.
Is this claim true?
Analysis was done on an experiment on a sanitizer that proved to have killed 99.9% of the bacteria. The sanitizer was tested on immobile objects (such as a table, chair, book), and not on human hands.
Although it may be true that it disinfects 99.9% of the bacteria on tables, its effectiveness may not be the same on human hands. Since our hands are warm and somewhat moist, it provides a better growth environment for bacteria. Thus, it may be more difficult to kill bacteria that grows on hands, thus decreasing the 99.9% claim.
In addition, even if hand sanitizers kill most bacteria, due to the nice living environment (compared with table for example), bacteria will quickly (faster than on tables) re-multiply its numbers.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
Today, the flu is going around and is infecting many people. It is important to keep your hands clean, and hand sanitizers may be very helpful in preventing infections and spreading it. HOWEVER, hand sanitizers should not be replaced with soap and water; soap-water combination will clean your hands (kills germs while removing oils, dirt, etc) and rinse it down the drain, whereas most of the sanitizer will stay on your hand (along with the dead germs, dirt, etc). Plus, it is said that bacteria may become immune to hand sanitizers if it is the only cleaning method used (not using soap and water, or other alternatives). Thus. hand sanitizers should only be used as a quick alternative when soap and water is not around.
Friday, November 13, 2009
Omega-3 Fish Oil Benefits
Fish Oil Benefits Your Eye Health. Here Are Some Best Natural Sources of Omega 3 Oil.
Omega 3 can lower your risk of developing eye diseases. If you have eye problem, read this.
*Note: Scroll down to find fish oil benefits and sources of omega 3.
"What no way!" you say? Fascinating isn't it?
*On a little side note here, for those of you on a diet plan, eating less fat will not make you lose weight. You must expend (use up) more calories than you take in (eat). Simple, isn't it?
The cells, tissues, muscles, nerves, and organs of our body need fatty acids in order to function properly. Fat is also required for our bodies to produce hormones that are essential for growth, reproduction, etc and we cannot survive without them.
For example, the precious male organ "down there" is what makes man what they are. It produces testosterone, which works to develop manly features (voice, muscle, etc).
And what does it need for testosterone to be produced?
You guessed it! Fatty acids. Not only that, fatty acids are also required for the production of female hormone, or estrogen, which gives feminine features in a person.
Our body uses fatty acids in many other ways as well. For example, fat surrounds the entire eye ball and allows the eyeball to rotate smoothly.
However, not all fats are beneficial. Some fats like trans-fat and saturated fat really do just make you fat and unhealthy. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial found that over 1000 patients with type 1 diabetes slowed the progression of retinopathy by 33.2% when they consumed a low saturated fat diet - they consumed less than 10% of their daily calories from saturated fat, and less than 30% of calories from total fat.
Hm, so although they are all fatty acids, there are some good ones and bad ones. It's kind of like people isn't it? Some people are just adorable and innocent little angels, and some just cause destruction upon the earth each step they take!
Some healthy fatty acids are called essential fatty acids (EFAs) ? EFAs cannot be produced by our bodies, therefore we must consume these important fats from our diet.
Omega 3 oil, or often called fish oil, is one type of EFAs that benefits the health of our eyes. Omega-3 fatty acid DHA is highly concentrated in the retina of our eyes and we must consume omega 3 oil in order nourish them.
Essential fatty acids are crucial for the development of proper vision in infants. EFAs also help drain
eye fluids which regulates intraocular pressure.
One of the main source of Omega 3 oil is from fish. Studies have shown that consumption of these healthy oils may lower the risk of heart disease, retinopathy, and the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (Study in Australia and US involving over 2,200 people (average age was 64), in 2005).
Some studies with animals showed that a mere 2% increase in the intake of omega-3 oil reduced retinopathy by 50%.
Fascinating, isn't it?! A mere 2% has so much effect! However, keep in mind that human bodies are the same as animals, so the benefits of fish oil may be higher or lower for us.
Besides helping to prevent eye diseases, there are even more fish oil benefits.
A 5 year study in Harvard concluded that diet containing foods rich in antioxidants, particularly, lutein and zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids have reduced the possibility of forming AMD as well as cataracts.
I’ve read in one of Maclean’s Article, “Keep your eyes with help from a fish” that people who consumed 3 portions of oily fish (that are high in omega 3) per week has reduced as much as 70% risk for developing AMD.
Other studies show that a combination of omega 3 and vitamin C may reduce the risk of forming glaucoma. Participants of this study consumed 500mg of vitamin C two to three times daily.
As we can see, there are many fish oil benefits for our eyes. To let you in on a secret, I like to gauge out the eyes of mackerel and eat them (after they are cooked ofcourse!). Grossed out much? Don't be! Fish eyes have some good nutrients in there too!
Fear not, people who only eat vegetables!
There are many, many excellent sources of omega 3 in vegetarian foods that gives similar fish oil benefits. After all, all the nutrients that are in meat first originated from plant nutrients.
One of the best and the most popular plant sources of omega 3 oil is Flax seed (linseed). Flax seed has the highest concentration of omega 3 oil among its plant competitors.
Other sources include leafy green vegetables such as spinach. Never thought plant leaves have oil in them did you? Neither did I, until I did my research.
Nuts such as walnuts, brazil nuts, hazel nuts, and pecans are some excellent nuts that contain omega 3 oil. The next time someone calls you a nut, take it as a compliment! You are full of nutritious omega 3 oil!
As a healthy snack, I like to take a bowl full of mixed nuts and seeds and eat them throughout the day.
Some other sources include sesame seeds and tahini (a sesame seed paste that is popularly used as a dipping sauce), soya bean oil, canola oil, rapeseed oil, egg yolk with added omega 3.
Now we cannot forget fish oil/ omega 3 oil supplements. However, despite its benefits, you can overdose on supplements. Consuming too much omega 3 in supplement form can lead to undesirable results.
What is a good source of fish oil? You've guessed it, fish!
However, not all fish is a good source of omega 3, nor does it have fish oil benefits.
Some of the top source fish include salmon, sardine, cod, herring, and mackerel.
To sum it up, I've used a handy dandy program called Microsoft Excel to create table that lists the sources mentioned above.
Omega 3 can lower your risk of developing eye diseases. If you have eye problem, read this.
*Note: Scroll down to find fish oil benefits and sources of omega 3.
Do fats really make you fat?
Giving you a fat belly is not what all fatty acids can do. Fatty acids (ie. Omega 3 oil) are actually important building blocks that your body needs in order to maintain healthy body and its function.
"What no way!" you say? Fascinating isn't it?
*On a little side note here, for those of you on a diet plan, eating less fat will not make you lose weight. You must expend (use up) more calories than you take in (eat). Simple, isn't it?
The cells, tissues, muscles, nerves, and organs of our body need fatty acids in order to function properly. Fat is also required for our bodies to produce hormones that are essential for growth, reproduction, etc and we cannot survive without them.
For example, the precious male organ "down there" is what makes man what they are. It produces testosterone, which works to develop manly features (voice, muscle, etc).
And what does it need for testosterone to be produced?
You guessed it! Fatty acids. Not only that, fatty acids are also required for the production of female hormone, or estrogen, which gives feminine features in a person.
Our body uses fatty acids in many other ways as well. For example, fat surrounds the entire eye ball and allows the eyeball to rotate smoothly.
However, not all fats are beneficial. Some fats like trans-fat and saturated fat really do just make you fat and unhealthy. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial found that over 1000 patients with type 1 diabetes slowed the progression of retinopathy by 33.2% when they consumed a low saturated fat diet - they consumed less than 10% of their daily calories from saturated fat, and less than 30% of calories from total fat.
Hm, so although they are all fatty acids, there are some good ones and bad ones. It's kind of like people isn't it? Some people are just adorable and innocent little angels, and some just cause destruction upon the earth each step they take!
What is Omega 3
Some healthy fatty acids are called essential fatty acids (EFAs) ? EFAs cannot be produced by our bodies, therefore we must consume these important fats from our diet.
Omega 3 oil, or often called fish oil, is one type of EFAs that benefits the health of our eyes. Omega-3 fatty acid DHA is highly concentrated in the retina of our eyes and we must consume omega 3 oil in order nourish them.
Essential fatty acids are crucial for the development of proper vision in infants. EFAs also help drain
eye fluids which regulates intraocular pressure.
What are the fish oil benefits?
One of the main source of Omega 3 oil is from fish. Studies have shown that consumption of these healthy oils may lower the risk of heart disease, retinopathy, and the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (Study in Australia and US involving over 2,200 people (average age was 64), in 2005).
Some studies with animals showed that a mere 2% increase in the intake of omega-3 oil reduced retinopathy by 50%.
Fascinating, isn't it?! A mere 2% has so much effect! However, keep in mind that human bodies are the same as animals, so the benefits of fish oil may be higher or lower for us.
Besides helping to prevent eye diseases, there are even more fish oil benefits.
A 5 year study in Harvard concluded that diet containing foods rich in antioxidants, particularly, lutein and zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids have reduced the possibility of forming AMD as well as cataracts.
I’ve read in one of Maclean’s Article, “Keep your eyes with help from a fish” that people who consumed 3 portions of oily fish (that are high in omega 3) per week has reduced as much as 70% risk for developing AMD.
Other studies show that a combination of omega 3 and vitamin C may reduce the risk of forming glaucoma. Participants of this study consumed 500mg of vitamin C two to three times daily.
As we can see, there are many fish oil benefits for our eyes. To let you in on a secret, I like to gauge out the eyes of mackerel and eat them (after they are cooked ofcourse!). Grossed out much? Don't be! Fish eyes have some good nutrients in there too!
Vegetarian Sources of Omega 3 oil
Fear not, people who only eat vegetables!
There are many, many excellent sources of omega 3 in vegetarian foods that gives similar fish oil benefits. After all, all the nutrients that are in meat first originated from plant nutrients.
One of the best and the most popular plant sources of omega 3 oil is Flax seed (linseed). Flax seed has the highest concentration of omega 3 oil among its plant competitors.
Other sources include leafy green vegetables such as spinach. Never thought plant leaves have oil in them did you? Neither did I, until I did my research.
Nuts such as walnuts, brazil nuts, hazel nuts, and pecans are some excellent nuts that contain omega 3 oil. The next time someone calls you a nut, take it as a compliment! You are full of nutritious omega 3 oil!
As a healthy snack, I like to take a bowl full of mixed nuts and seeds and eat them throughout the day.
Some other sources include sesame seeds and tahini (a sesame seed paste that is popularly used as a dipping sauce), soya bean oil, canola oil, rapeseed oil, egg yolk with added omega 3.
Now we cannot forget fish oil/ omega 3 oil supplements. However, despite its benefits, you can overdose on supplements. Consuming too much omega 3 in supplement form can lead to undesirable results.
Source of Fish Oil
What is a good source of fish oil? You've guessed it, fish!
However, not all fish is a good source of omega 3, nor does it have fish oil benefits.
Some of the top source fish include salmon, sardine, cod, herring, and mackerel.
To sum it up, I've used a handy dandy program called Microsoft Excel to create table that lists the sources mentioned above.
(All Rights Reserved. Copyright Content 2009)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Heredity Genetics of Parkinson's Disease
Heredity of Parkinson's Disease
What is Parkinson's Disease?
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in humans, Alzheimer’s dementia being the first. Parkinsonism and paralysis agitans are two other names (but rarely used today) of PD (Morrison, 143). This disease mainly occurs in people over the age of 65, affecting about 1.8% of the world-wide population (Bogaerts, 129, Belin, 1377), and the development of risk increases with time (Vila, S58). It affects approximately 130 out of 100,000 people per year, and it is more common to human males than females. It was first described in 1817 (Morrison, 143) and it wasn’t until recently that this disease became known to be linked to genetics. The pathways for Parkinson’s disease include both environmental and genetic factors, and the resulting symptoms are dreadful. In attempt to cure this disease, research is being done in many areas, including pharmacological therapy, psychological placebo treatments, and stem cell replacement technique.What Causes PD?
Both environmental and mutations in genes contribute to the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Studies have shown that exposure to certain chemicals can develop the symptoms of PD in humans. Several genetic mutations, whether inherited and or developed sporadically, are found to be responsible for the cause of PD. Studies so far show that gene mutations in Parkin, PINK1, and LRRK2 are associated with increased damages to dopaminergic neurons which can result in PD (Bogaerts, 129). This study shows a relation with PD’s characteristic - the degeneration of dopamine neuron and depigmentation of the substantia nigra along with neuron loss in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus (Belin).Is Parkinsons Purely Genetic? NOPE!
Environmental chemicals have the ability to reproduce symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Bogaerts found that drug abusers that extensively consumed 1-methyl-4phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) developed symptoms of PD. He explains that MPTP’s metabolite, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), is transported into DAergic neurons by the dopamine transporter. MPP+ then enters mitochondria within these neurons and selectively inhibits mitochondrial respiration at complex I of the electron transport chain. This process is likely to impair the production of dopamine neuron, thus damaging the body’s ability to use the nerves. In addition, chronic mixture of rotenone (another highly selective complex I inhibitor) have also been found to produce behavioural and neuropathological features in rats. These symptoms produced by the exposure to MPTP and rotenone showed that PD can be caused by environmental influences (129).Dysfunctional Mitochondria May Be Another Cause
Besides the harmful effects of chemicals, oxidative stresses by dysfunctional mitochondria may be one of the contributors for PD. Simply put, mitochondria is energy-producing mechanism (organelle) in the cell.Oxidative stress is characterized by a high level production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that harm cells, proteins, lipids and DNA as well as having a lack of antioxidants that protect them from the ROS (Bogaerts, 130). ROS is generated as a by-product of phosphorylation in the mitochondria, and studies show that it may cause damage to dopamine neurons in the brain (130). Oxidation in the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra may result in fatal damage to the cells (130). Devi states that antioxidant level is decreased in the elderly (143). This will expose dopamine-producing neurons in the brain to a greater risk of oxidative damage; it may explain why Parkinson’s disease occurs more frequently in people over the age of 60.
Heredity Factors of Parkinson's Disease - "Parkin" Gene
The mutations in parkin can cause autosomal recessive early onset PD. Parkin is located in the proliferating cells in the mitochondria and studies suggests its role in “mitochondrial biogenesis by regulating both transcription and replication of mtDNA” (Bogaerts, 135). Mutations in parkin showed a decreased quantity of proteins that are involved in mitochondrial respiratory chain activity and protection against oxidative stress (135). In addition, cells in drosophila that contained surplus of parkin expression showed that it was protected from ceramide-mediated cell death “by delaying mitochondrial swelling” (135). In humans, parkin over-expression protected cells from apoptosis, and also decreased cellular ROS levels. Additionally, a combination of malfunctioning mitochondria, oxidative stress, and parkin mutation could lead to haploinsufficiency (lack of a haploid) in sporadic patients with heterozygous parkin mutations (136). The mutations in parkin gene cause harm the protective system against oxidative damage, which can result in PD.Heredity Factors of PD - "PINK1" gene
Mutations in PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) gene was found to be associated with PD. PINK1 is a tremor suppressor with a “serine-threonine kinase and a mitochondrial targeting motif, making it prone to accumulate in the intermembranous space of mitochondria” (Belin, 1380). Heterozygous PINK1 were reported to be enriched threefold in sporadic PD patients compared to control individuals (non-affected by PD), and it was shown to cause late-onset PD (Bogaerts, 136). Study shows that “RNA interference-mediated inactivation of the PINK1 homologue in Drosophila resulted in progressive loss of [dopaminergic neurons]” (136). The inactivation of PINK1 was associated with the deaths of neurons due to its vulnerability to oxidative damage. This study suggested that PINK1 had protective roles in the neurons; thus, the mutations in this gene may cause loss of dopamine, resulting in loss of nerve control.Heredity Factors - "LRRK2" Gene
A single mutation in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), G2019S, is one of the most common causes of autosomal dominant late onset PD. G2019S alone is responsible 5-6% of all familial (inherited) PD and in 1-2% of all sporadic (non-inherited) PD, it is considered to be one of the most direct evidences of the cause of this disease (Bonifati). In North African Arabs population, the G2019S mutation frequency is as high as 41% (Belin, 1380). One of the novel studies showed that patients who carried G2019S mutation had a 17.6 times greater risk of developing PD (Bonifati).LRRK2 are expressed in the dopamine target areas, striatum and frontal cortex (Bogaerts, 136), and missense mutations (single nucleotide mutation) in this gene are found to be involved with the neuronal cell degenerations in SH-SY5Y cells (neuroblastoma cells) (137). The mutation in LRRK2 also shows an involvement with the neuronal cell degeneration.Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease
Both physiological and mental symptoms can arise in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Physical symptoms include muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, impaired balance, tremor at rest, and decreased mobility (Morrison, 143-44, Belin,1377). Tremor is characterized by the rough back and forth movements of thumb and forefingers, about 4 cycles per second which is not very fast. Tremor usually occurs when the patient is at rest, and it may start from one side and spread to affect other parts of the body. Muscle rigidity and loss of mobility may begin with reduced ability to blink and move other facial muscles, which will eventually spread to other parts. This is shown by the dull (non-smiling or non-frowning) facial expressions, monotone voice, and irregular swinging of the arms when walking in PD patients. In addition, they also have difficulty initiating movements, such as taking a first step when walking; PD patients may have to intentionally fall forward in order to force their first step (appears as an effort to prevent falling over).Patients with advanced (severe) disease, they may show symptoms such as forwardly bent spine, drooped shoulders, and flexed forearms at the elbows. They may also show akinesia (loss of voluntary muscle control) and have a hard time performing normal daily activities such as dressing up, eating and swallowing, which may result in drooling (Morrison, 143-44).
Acquiring some of these physical disabilities can lead to mental stresses and show symptoms like anxiety, depression, withdrawal, loss of interest, weakness and dementia (memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning) (Morrison, 144-45). Generally, the symptoms of PD are the loss of voluntary movements which can lead to emotional stress that may affect mental abilities.
How to Treat Parkinson's Disease?
Currently, psychological and physical treatment techniques are used when treating Parkinson’s disease patients. PD is currently without a complete cure – treatments may be able to lessen the symptoms but cannot completely cure the disease. Pharmacological therapy produced devastating side-effects in patients, thus new treatment methods are currently being researched (Trzaska, 99). One research shows that symptoms of PD can be eased when patients strongly believe that they can be cured by a treatment method. Niemi found that “placebos can help not only to alleviate illnesses with an obvious psychological component, such as pain, depression, and anxiety, but also to lessen the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.” When patients believe in the effectiveness of a treatment that is actually a sham, this belief can become a cure to improve the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.Another research that is currently being done may be the best possible physical treatment technique so far – the stem cell replacement technique. Doctors are using stem cells and its ability to derive dopamine neurons, and attempting to transplant them into the affected area of the brain; they are used as a substitute for the degenerated ones (Trzaska, 99). Transplantation of stem cell-derived dopamine neurons demonstrated potential benefit in neuro-regeneration when tested in animals (99). However, despite its possible potential curing ability, brains of humans and other animals are quite dissimilar and thus it is still a difficult and unperfected treatment method to cure PD(106). The current knowledge and technology is insufficient and thus, a further study and research is required in order to make an excellent cure.
Conclusion
Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that causes loss of motor control in patients. Studies showed that PD does not necessary have to be inherited in order to affect individuals; environmental factors, such as harmful chemicals and drugs, also place a high risk in developing PD symptoms. Symptoms are characterized by loss of voluntary movement, primarily due to the deaths of dopaminergic neurons and a lack of defence against oxidative stress (caused by dysfunctional mitochondria) in the brain. To cure this disease, pharmacological therapies were initially used, but due to its harmful side-effects, new researches are currently being done. The new researches include psychological treatments (the use of placebos) and transplantation of stem cells in attempt to regenerate neurons. None of the treatment techniques are perfect, and requires a further research and study in order to create a desired cure.Works Cited
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